Understanding overshooting top in thunderstorms
Overshooting tops develop on thunderstorms that have powerful updrafts. Overshooting tops typically develop on Cumulonimbus capillatus incus clouds. The updraft punches through the equilibrium level …
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The highest ever measured thunderstorms – how high can they go?
How high into the sky can thunderstorms develop – what are the highest ever measured thunderstorms? The most vigorous updrafts reach the tropopause and produce …
The Cryosphere
The cryosphere is a fundamental and integral part of the climate system, and it has important linkage and feedback with the major components of the …
Convective initiation: Understanding thunderstorm development
Convection initiation typically starts along boundary-layer convergence zones. These zones have long been known to be key factors in convection initiation and further storm evolution. …
Understanding atmospheric instability
Atmospheric instability is where the Earth’s atmosphere is generally considered unstable. As air near the ground heats, it becomes more and more unstable and becomes …
Understanding the ACE Index: Measuring tropical cyclone energy
The Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE index) is a metric used to express the energy a tropical cyclone uses during its lifetime. The calculation multiplies a …
Red sprites, gigantic jets, elves: Captivating upper-atmosphere lightning
If ordinary lightning seems pretty ordinary, upper-atmosphere lightning is something else – an entire zoo of various upper-atmosphere electrical discharges. Red sprites, gigantic and blue …
Understanding severe thunderstorms: criteria and impact
During storm season, there is increasing talk about severe thunderstorms. What does “severe” in severe thunderstorms mean? When does a thunderstorm become severe? What criteria …